Othello and Guess Whos Coming to Dinner Comparative Essay Example for Free

Othello and Guess Whos Coming to Dinner Comparative Essay The transformation between Othello, a 16th century Shakespearean tragedy and Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner, a 1960’s Romantic Comedy, can be compared by addressing themes that are present in each text. The theme of race can be used to compare the different attitudes of each context, surrounding the significant black characters of Othello in Othello and John in Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner, and there interaction with white females that belong to an upper middle class. The theme of interracial marriages can be used to compare the different values and attitudes of each context, towards a black white marriage. This applies to both Othello Desdemona and John Joanna. By exploring the different contexts, ideas and techniques incorporated into each text, we can apprehend the different messages that each composer has attempted to convey to their audience. Othello – Power of Love Othello is a Shakespearean tragedy, set in Elizabethan Times that present the relationship between, Othello, a ‘moor’ who’s an official in the Venetian army and Desdemona, the daughter of a noble Venetian Senator, Brabantio, and how despite their different experiences in love, a strong relationship can occur, without any initial external input. Desdemona’s assertive behaviour towards romantically pursing Othello, demonstrates her confidence and power, which she maintains throughout the play. Most significantly, the fact that Othello did not ask for Brabantio’s permission to marry Desdemona, demonstrates how Othello did not consider the traditional values of Elizabeth society. However as they play develops, Iago’s manipulation of Othello’s insecurities, leads to the relationship between Othello and Desdemona falling apart. This reflects Elizabethan society and its values towards love and marriage. In Elizabethan times, a marriage between a man and a woman was considered extremely important. Women were generally considered to be in the possession of their father, this was because men were considered powerful and important people. It was in the father’s power to determine whom their daughter married, provided that his family were respectable and had money. A marriage between a ‘moor’ and a white would not have been socially acceptable in Elizabethan times, seeing that the Moorish skin colour portrayed a sense of filth and evil. Whites being superior and educated, while others were considered inferior. This theme can be explored through the objectification of Desdemona in scene 1 Act 3 Lines 182-187 â€Å"How to respect you. You are lord of all my duty: I am hitherto your daughter. But here’s my husband: And so much duty as many mother showed To you, preferring you before her father, so much I challenge that I may profess Due to the moor, my lord.† We see that Desdemona, is detaching herself from her father, just as her mother did to her father. This demonstrates her power and her ability to make decisions despite her father’s approval.

The Banker-Customer Relationship

The Banker-Customer Relationship Banker Customer Relationship In the light of a massive erosion of the principle of confidentiality. In the Banker/ Customer Relationship Review Committee on Banking Services Law (1989) recommended that the government should not further extend the statutory exceptions to the duty of confidentiality, without taking full account of the consequences for the banker/ customer relationship Critically discuss how the principles of confidentiality has developed the potential aspect on banker/customer relationship. The banking service plays a major role in within modern society. It is estimated that over 90% of all adults in the UK hold a bank or building society account. Therefore the proper deliver of services by banks is of significance to the majority of UK consumers. The issue of confidentiality is an essential feature of the service. In 1989, the Treasury and the Bank of England set up the first independent review on banking services law and practice within the UK. That report is known as the Jack Report. The objectives of the report were to achieve four main objectives: i) achieve fairness and transparency of dealings ii) maintain confidence iii) promote efficiency iv) preserve the bankers duty of confidentiality. Amongst its 83 recommendations, the Report recommended that the government should not further extend the statutory exceptions to the duty of confidentiality, without taking full account of the consequences for the bank/customer relationship. This paper seeks to analyze how the principles of confidentiality have developed since 1989 in relation to the banker and consumer. History The obligations of confidentiality in relation to banking law within the UK stem from the common law. The leading case in this area was Tournier v National Provincial and Union Bank of England. The bank had released information related to the plaintiffs debt to the bank to his employers, and this subsequently led to his dismissal. The Court of Appeal confirmed that it is an implied term of the banker/customer contract that the banker has a duty of secrecy. In the circumstances of the case, it was found that the bank had breached its duty, and the court found for the plaintiff. Bankes LJ stated that confidentiality may be breached: i) Where disclosure is made under compulsion of law; ii) Where there is a duty to the public to disclose iii) Where the interests of the bank requires disclosure iv) Where the disclosure is made by the express or implied consent of the customer. The decision was more recently affirmed by the Court of Appeal in 1989 in Lipkin Gorman v Karpnale. Therefore, the primary rule in UK banking law is that all information relating to the state of a customers account, or any of his transactions with the bank, or any information relating to the customer acquired through the keeping of his account is confidential, subject to the four Tournier exceptions. Statutory Law The first exception in Tournier permits the bank to disclose confidential information under compulsion of law. This may be either at common law or statute. The Committee took the view that too many inroads had been made by legislation into banking confidentiality. At the time of the Jack Report, the following legislative exceptions existed:- Banking Acts The Banking Act 1979 was the first formal legal framework to banking regulation within the UK. Part V of the Banking Act 1987 sets out restrictions on the disclosure of information without consent. It does not extend to any information within the public domain. Exceptions are set out at Sections 83 and 84. These permit, inter alia, restricted information may be released to an auditor if that information would assist the FSA in discharging its functions. Section 7 The Bankers Books and Evidence Act 1879 This permits any party to legal proceedings to apply to the court for an order granting him permission to inspect and take copies of any entries in a bankers books, for the purposes of such proceedings. This power is discretionary, and will only be exercised with great caution. An order is only usually made against the account of the party who is involved in the litigation or, if it is in the name of some other person, the account which is really the account of the party. It will only be made against non parties in very exceptional circumstances. Further, there is an implied undertaking on discovery only to use the documents for the purposes of the action in which discovery is given. The Taxes Management Act 1970 S1 2 Various provisions under this act permit the Commissioners to decide whether or not in their opinion tax has been unlawfully evaded. Therefore, the ambit of this exception is wide. However, it is only the office holder, such as the Administrator or liquidator that may make an application to the court for an order under this provision. Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 The police are entitled to obtain access to special procedure material for the purposes of criminal investigation. If an order is made relating to bank confidential information, the bank is under no obligation to resist the order, nor to inform the customer that an order is being sought. Financial Services Act 1986 S177 allows the Secretary of State to appoint inspectors to carry out investigations to establish whether or not an offence of insider dealing has been committed. The Inspectors may order any person whom they consider may be able to give information to produce any documents in his possession or control. Insolvency Act 1986 s.236(1) The court may summon any person known or suspected to be in possession of any property of the company or supposed to be indebted to the company; or any person whom the court thinks capable of giving information concerning the promotion, formation, dealings, affairs or property of the company. It can require production of any records in his possession or control relating to these issues. The provision is not limited to documents required to reconstitute the state of the companys knowledge. Criminal Justice Act 1987 By Section 2, in cases of serious or complex fraud, the Director of the Serious Fraud Office may require any person to produce specified documents that appear to the Director to relate to any matter relevant to the investigation. The Jack Report The report examined the bankers duty of confidentiality and, in particular, the exception at iii) above in the Tournier case that disclosure may be permitted where the interest of the bank requires disclosure. The committee recommended that legislation should be enacted to state that damages for breach of confidentiality should include compensation for distress, embarrassment or inconvenience, regardless of whether financial loss could be proved. The report expressed concern in particular in relation to the growing perception within some banks that they are permitted to release confidential information to other members of their group without any express consent. An additional concern related to the disclosure of confidential information to credit reference agencies. These issues were considered in Turner v Royal Bank of Scotland PLC. In that case, the bank had responded to a number of status enquiries in its standard coded terms appears to be fully committed at present). The court heard evidence that it was the standard practice of all banks not to seek customers consents. The Court of Appeal held that customers were entitled, under Tournier, to have their affairs kept confidential, and it was not for banks to privately agree otherwise. The banking code now makes clear the banks obligations in these regards. The Committee was concerned that the balance between public interest and private rights had moved too far in the direction of disclosure. It is therefore clear, in light of the Jack Report, that the third exception within Tournier should not be used other than within the narrowest of situations. The government responded cautiously to the Report, but supported the idea of a voluntary code of practice. A voluntary code was developed by the banks. Although the code is voluntary, Almost all banks subscribe to it. The March 2003 edition of the Banking Code sets out the banks obligations of confidentiality, which reflect the four exceptions within Tournier. The Code also makes clear that the third exception within Tournier is designed to protect the institutions legitimate interests, and does not extend to the transfer of information for marketing purposes unless the customer has provided specific consent to such disclosure. Developments since the Jack Report Since 1989, arguments in favour of disclosure have increased. This arises out of growing concerns related to drug trafficking and other forms of organized crimes. Concerns have escalated in the wake of 9/11 and the war on terrorism. Therefore, since the Report, the government has enacted further legislation, which create much tighter obligations on banks to disclose information relating to drug trafficking, money laundering, and terrorism, as follow. Drug Trafficking Act 1994 This provides that where a person discloses to a constable a suspicion that funds are used in connection with drug trafficking, that disclosure will not be a breach of any statutory or other legal restriction. The police are also permitted to apply to the court for an order for disclosure in appropriate circumstances. Money Laundering Regulations 2001 The new regulations add a power to the commissioners to enter and inspect money service operators premises. It also empowers the commissioners to seek a court order requiring any person in possession of specified information to allow them access to it, where there are reasonable grounds for believe that a money laundering offence has been committed. Part 3 Anti-Terrorism Crime and Security Act 2001 This act was passed extremely quickly in response to the terrorist attacks on 11th September 2001. The Act was intended to ensure that government departments and agencies can collect and share information required for countering the terrorist threat. The disclosure powers within Part 3 have proved controversial, particularly since those powers are not limited to anti-terrorist investigations. There is naturally a perceived danger of citizens privacy rights being breached if hitherto confidential information is disclosed to the police or intelligence agencies under this new legislation. The Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 Under this Act, a crown court judge may make a disclosure order requiring any person to give tot he Director of the Assets Recovery Agency any relevant information. Under Sections 370-375, the court may also make a customer information order, which requires a bank to provide information relating to the affairs of the customer. Civil Procedure Rules Part 31 The requirements for disclosure are extended beyond the pre 1999 court rules. The court has developed powers to order discovery of information at the earliest stages of an action to assist a claimant to trace and recover property to which he claims he is wrongfully deprived. Conclusion The Jack Committee felt that too many inroads had been made by legislation into banking confidentiality, and recommended that consolidating legislation be enacted. It requested that any future exemptions should be made by reference to the new provision, and any not so made would not override the central duty of confidentiality. No such legislation was introduced. The government did not accept that there had been a massive erosion of the duty. It is submitted however that the exceptions in 1989 were extremely wide, as set out above. Exceptions existed if there was suspicion of tax evasion, any crime (under PACE), insider dealing, or fraud. Further, documents were even then disclosable without any criminal activity, in the case of an insolvent company or where civil proceedings were commenced. The government has since enacted extensive additional legislation which further undermines the obligation of confidentiality, creating a new suspicion based reporting regime. The government will argue that the further inroads are justified in the fight against terrorism, drug trafficking and other serious crime. The government must be seen to strike an appropriate balance in confidentiality laws vis a vis civil rights and public interest. The important question is whether todays consumers accept that there is justification for the diminished duty. Consumers would normally view all information within the banks possession as entirely confidential, not to be released without their explicit consent. It is submitted however that, in light of todays atmosphere of abhorrence to terrorism and crimes that may fund terrorism, such as drug trafficking and money laundering, the inroads to the duty seem palatable. Of course, the exemptions are far wider than most consumers would expect. For example, under the Bankers Books and Evidence Act, or under Part 31 of the Civil Procedure Rules, the court can require disclosure from a bank in connection with any civil court proceedings. This will not necessarily involve cases where there is any suspicion of criminal activity, and may simply relate to an alleged, ill founded claim for breach of contract. It is essential in todays society that consumers are able to maintain trust in their bank, and rely on the implicit confidentiality of the relationship. The right to privacy is of fundamental importance to most consumers This is essential particularly in commerce. It is not conducive to commercial efficiency to have information relating to trading made open to competitors. A breach of confidence to a competitor can cause immediate, irreparable and incalculable loss to a company. The courts have emphasized that there is a strong public interest in maintaining confidentiality based on the moral principles of loyalty and fair dealing. Consumers disclose information to banks on the understanding that it will remain confidential. Of course, disclosure is justified in exceptional circumstances, for example control of banking fraud, or where an individual is involved in money laundering profits from terrorism or drug trafficking. However, it is submitted that the current extent of the statutory exceptions go far beyond this. Bibliography Banking Litigation Warne Elliot, Sweet Maxwell 1999 Encyclopedia of Banking Law, Cresswell and others Butterworths 2004 Halsburys Laws of England, volume 3(1), 4th Edition Halsburys Laws of England 2001 Annual Abridgement (Paragraph 278) Modern Banking law Ellinger, Limnicka Hooley, 3rd Edition Oxford 2002 The Law Relating to Domestic Banking Pen Shea, 2nd Edition Sweet Maxwell Anti-Terrorism Crime and Security Act 2001 Banking Code March 2003 Data Protection Act 1988 Drug Trafficking Act 1994 Evidence (Proceedings in other jurisdictions) Act 1975 Insolvency Act 1986 Money Laundering Regulations 2001 SI 2001/3641 Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1988 Taxes Management Act 1970 Bhinji v Chatwani (No 3) [1992] 4 All ER 913 British Commonwealth Holdings plc (joint administrators) v Spicer Oppenheim (a firm) [1993] AC 426 Lipkin Gorman v Karpnale [1989] 1 WLR 1341 Peterson v Idaho First National Bank 83 Idaho 578 Tournier v National Provincial and Union Bank of England [1924] 1 KB 461 CA Turner v Royal Bank of Scotland PLC (1999) CA (Civ Div) 24.3.99) Banking Services: Law and Practice Report by the Review Committee Professor Robert Jack CM 622 1989 Cracking the codes for bank customers Banking services Consumer code review group, May 2001. www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/media Court Rules on Duty of Confidentiality Lovells International Law Office www.internationallawoffice.com

The Impact of the Media on the Vietnam War Essay -- Vietnam War Essays

The Impact of the Media on the Vietnam War This essay will discuss to what degree the media can be blamed for the United States’ loss in the Vietnam conflict ending 1975. It will be based predominantly on key written resources on the subject, but it will also contain - by means of an interview - certain first-hand observations from a Vietnam War veteran. For the sake of conciseness, and in order to focus the bulk of the content on the main topic, this essay will make certain assumptions. Most importantly, the essay assumes that the conflict in Vietnam was, indeed, lost by the US. It also presupposes that ï ¿ ½ due to the political climate in the US ï ¿ ½ the war itself was unavoidable. Finally, the essay takes for granted that the reader has a basic knowledge of the reasons and major events behind the US military intervention in Vietnam from the mid-1950s until 1975. In the late 1960s, the low-intensity conflict in Indochina that had been in progress since the end of the Second World War became a full-scaled war. In order for the transition from low-intensity conflict to war to have taken place, a change in the public opinion surrounding the war must have taken place, resulting in the politicians of the time having support for the conflict. When the invasion was initiated, it was proved that the politicians in effect had the press in their pockets: the American press was not asking why there was a need for intervention, but rather how the logistics and economics of the invasion would fit together (Herman & Chomsky 1988). Escalation of conflict The US media did not become interested in the conflict until November 1960, when the US troops stationed in Saigon suffered a spectacular failure during a hunt for a small group of rebels: approximately 400 civilians were killed by American troops. With the conflict suddenly caught in the media spotlight, a small group of war correspondents were sent to Vietnam. The reporters were from the NYT, Herald Tribune, AP , UPI , Reuters and AFP . Stringers and / or reporters from Newsweek, Sunday Times, Daily Telegraph and the Observer soon followed. (Knightly 1975) Eventually ï ¿ ½ when the conflict escalated further ï ¿ ½ â€Å"Indochina was flooded with war correspondents† (Herman & Chomsky 1988, 193) Warfare can be conducted for many reasons. In the case of the Vietnam conflict, the conflic... ...; The media showed what happened, no more. And what was going on in Vietnam was not pretty, as with most other wars. It is safe to say that the media did not lose the war, but rather expressed the feeling that the US soldiers were dying by the thousands without a good reason. As Melnick quite profoundly summarises it: â€Å"Nobody wants to die for somebody else’s country, and that’s what it boiled down to†. Works cited: Albig, W (1939) Public Opinion New York: McGraw-Hill Cook, M et al. (2001) Tet Offensive http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node=tet+offensive Herman, E.S. and Chomsky, N (1988) Manufacturing Consent: The political economy of the mass media New York: Pantheon Books Kennedy, W.V (1993) The Military and the Media: Why the Press Cannot Be Trusted to Cover a War. New York: Praeger Publishers Knightly, P (1975) The First Casualty London: Pan Books Lugo, J (8 Oct 2002) Lecture: Manufacturing consent and public opinion. Liverpool John Moores University Melnick, Mark (12 Oct 2002) Interview via e-mail: Media and Vietnam Schulzinger, R.D. (1998) A time for war: The United States and Vietnam, 1941-1975 New York: Oxford University Press

George Mayo and The Hawthorne Effect Essay -- essays research papers

Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Hawthorne Effect has been described as â€Å"the rewards you reap when you pay attention to people† (Maslow, 2005). George Elton Mayo conducted the Hawthorne Studies with the intention of bringing about a greater understanding of the effects of working conditions on worker productivity. The results of these studies turned out to be contrary to the management theories of the times but were important in creating an understanding of motivation factors in workers. â€Å"The studies have had a profound effect on the field of Organizational development† (Richard, 2004). Due to the research efforts of past management theorists, we have many more insightful management trends and educated managers today. Biography of Theorist   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  George Elton Mayo was born in Adelaide, South Australia, on December 26, 1880. He was the second child of a respected colonial family, whose father was a civil engineer. After failing to follow in his grandfather’s footsteps studying medicine, he was sent to Britain. He then began to write about Australian politics for the Pall Mall Gazette and taught at the Working Men’s College in London. Afterwards, he returned to the university and became the most brilliant student of the philosopher, Sir William Mitchell, although his views on management cause him to be unpopular. George Mayo married Dorothea McConnel, and then had two daughters, Patricia Elton Mayo, who would follow her father’s management...

Organized Cybercrimes Essay

Verizon business researched and reported in 2009 a case study involving data breaches in secured network. Within their findings, they summarize the threats, which industry, and which records are the most popular. The report fist showed that a percentage of the hacking from outside sources came from the European Union, and the most popular info being stolen was financial and retail goods. Surprisingly there were a large amount of threats in house that took advantage of software issue’s and exploited them. More than likely sold the info to outside source to further continue hacking and establishing a backdoor it the database. Of the all the outside attacks according from the European Union, most of them were organized crime family’s that originated out of the Soviet bloc nations. It is by far cheaper the hack and sells credit card numbers abroad that sit on a corner and peddle illegal goods. Another cash crop for cybercrime and hacking is the diversion of goods, especially from ports of entry. Using financial records and accounts to pose as a company that is entitled to receive goods is one the tactics used. Once those item are in there possession, they disappear. A percentage of these hackers can by way of software be totally transparent, and for intent purposes be invisible until the crime has committed. This poses a very job to law enforcement to track capture and convict these criminals, not to mention some these countries don’t even have extradition rights to the USA. It would take a co-op effort of the Euro nations and US and Asia to make the act of hacking and breaching networks a more serious crime.

Marine Iguana

The marine iguana, scientifically known as Amblyrhynchus cristatus, is the only lizard in the world that takes to the sea.   Markedly different in appearance, size, and physical attributes, than its land-living cousin.   As one of the many varieties of iguana that Darwin observed in the Galapagos Islands, the marine iguana demonstrates an evolutionary response to a particular set of environmental challenges and has offered marine and land biologists alike the opportunity to study one of the true cross-over species. The discovery of this iguana variant was part, clearly, of the evidence that led so many scientists to immediately see the logic and accuracy of what Darwin had â€Å"discovered†.  Ã‚   Understanding the marine iguana’s habitat, diet, behavioral patterns, survival techniques, and outlook is the purpose of this examination. It is intended to gain a broad understanding of how the marine iguana lives, breeds, and survives. First discovered by Charles Darwin, aboard the Beagle, while touring the Galapagos Islands,   the marine iguana, or Amblyrhynchus cristatus became one of the most remarkable finds of that journey. The marine iguana is distinguished from other iguanas by â€Å"their short, blunt snouts and slightly laterally compressed tail that efficiently moves this lizard along the surface   or beneath the water,† (Amblyrhynchus cristatus, Marine Iguana – MarineBio.org. Retrieved Monday, April 9, 2007, from http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=165.) The marine iguana is of a similar length to the full-grown land iguanas (reaching two to three feet from nose to tail) and can weigh up to eight pounds.   The color of the marine iguana is quite closely matched to the black volcanic rocks in which it lives.   While there are no natural predators of the marine iguana on land, thus making the evolutionary argument for the coloring of the creature to be necessary for camouflage, there are very specific benefits – primarily being that of heat absorption.   In the water, however, predators abound. The marine iguana, living both on land and in the ocean, and being a cold-blooded creature, requires an adjustment time when going from hot to cold and heat-absorbing coloring, such as the dark black dominant color on the marine iguana helps to reduce that shift in temperatures and helps to return the iguana to normal speed of functioning faster.   The marine iguana, like all reptiles, does not have the ability to thermoregulate which also accounts for the dark coloring as a necessary boost in the absorption of heat from the sun. This ability is absolutely critical to the marine iguana’s pursuit of food.   All reptiles will physically slow down to a near halt the colder they get.   Therefore, in order to prevent an absolute cessation of movement during a dive, the marine iguana must raise its body temperature to combat the nearly 10degree-Celsius loss that comes from an average dive. In fact, heat is a very significant part of the marine iguana’s life. They must warm themselves to dive, but they also must maintain a consistent temperature or risk getting too hot. (Rothman, p1). The marine iguana’s adaptations also include a nasal gland that excretes the excess salt taken in while in the ocean.   All of these factors, and more, contribute to making the marine iguana a most fascinating creature. The habitat of the marine iguana is not just limited to the Galapagos Islands but that is the only place it is naturally found (there are many marine iguana exhibits in zoos.   The Galapagos Islands are generally characterized by a variety of   both high and low and scrub or cling-vegetation.   Each island is unique in its combination of vegetation and animal life.   The marine iguana does not appear on all of the Galapagos islands, but, as has been previously stated, it is only found there which shows that it, as a unique creature, came to be what it is as a result of living in its particular habitat.   Interestingly, there are also variations in average size depending upon which island you find the marine iguana upon. Those found on Isabela and Ferdinandina are the largest and the smallest are found on the island of Genovesa.  Ã‚   How the marine iguana found its way to the Galapagos islands (and the marine iguana is the only iguana species on the islands) is unknown.   But, the prevailing theories center on the idea that the iguanas crossed on a land-bridge that sank long ago, or that they were transported from the mainland of Argentina or elsewhere in South America. Regardless, because of their distance from their origins, their unique environment that other iguanas had not been exposed to, and the relative lack of traditional iguana food (which is, actually, just about anything) but on these islands, the iguanas were either too slow to catch prey, or the natural vegetation was simply not nutritious enough for their needs. So, faced with this, the iguanas adapted to their environment and found that algae, one of the worlds most nutrient-rich foods, was a better and more consistent source of food than any other. There are thousands of insect varieties that other lizard species feed upon on the islands, but for the marine iguana, it is the algae growing on the rocks under the ocean surface that provides their food. Getting the algae does not require a great deal of hunting or foraging.   As algae is exceptionally abundant.   Because of this, the marine iguana has an average dive depth of up to 15 meters (with most only needing to be in the 1.5-5 meter range) and can remain under water for three to five minutes (with a notable few observed dives of up to 30 min), (marinebio.org). The day of the marine iguana is spent doing predictable reptile behavior: sunning to absorb heat in order to have a more successful dive for food, diving for food, and, reproducing.   The reproduction cycle for the marine iguana begins in December and goes through March.   The nesting season follows immediately after breeding, which takes place in the January to April time frame.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Breeding begins when females hit three to five-years of age and when the males are within the 6 to 8 year range. As is the case with only a few reptiles, the male marine iguanas have nothing to do with the guarding of the eggs.   But, the females will do so for up to a week (Rubenstein & Wikelski, â€Å"Seasonal Changes in Food Quality: A proximate cue for reproductive timing in marine iguanas†, 3013).   After that period, they leave the eggs on their own to incubate under two to four feet of sand.  Ã‚   Hatchlings weigh an average of 55 grams and are geared for survival from the moment they emerge from the shell. The challenges to the survival of the marine iguana are many, but they are no more so than those facing every other species of plant and animal on the islands or, indeed, anywhere else in the world.   Pollution, climate change, environmental shifts (such as El Nino), and human encroachment all play a part in determining the long-term survival of the marine iguana.   Fortunately, though, for this species at least there is relatively little industrialization or human colonization of the Galapagos. This results in much lower amounts of land and ecosystem loss.   But, as is the case for any creature that can’t make its own food, the marine iguana’s challenge is to eat enough to survive each day.   As long as ocean pollution does not find a way to kill off the algae, the marine iguana will continue to thrive in the Galapagos. The marine iguana is, indeed, a unique and special animal.   Referred to derogatorily as being â€Å"ugly†, the marine iguana is uniquely suited (adapted) to its environment through a series of evolutionary shifts that took it away from the land iguana to one that can   swim under water, expel salt through a nasal gland, and gets nearly all of its food underwater.   These creatures eat primarily algae found on the rocks and reefs below the ocean surface and, in order to make these dives to get that food, must raise their core temperature to as to have quick reflexes even as their body temperature is going down. Found on many of the Galapagos islands, the marine iguana even shows variations in body size from island to island.   Breeding takes place in the summer months (of the Southern Hemisphere) and nesting follows shortly.   The marine iguana provides a look into the deep biological past (one can see the dinosaurs in the background) for its appearance which is designed to assist with the absorption of heat.   While the marine iguana is not currently under environmental threat, but can be greatly affected by a host of events both locally and globally. References Amblyrhynchus cristatus, Marine Iguana – MarineBio.org. Online. Internet. Avail.   http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=165. Info acc 8 March, 2007. Rothman, Robert. â€Å"Marine Iguana†. RIT.edu. Online. Internet. Avail: http://www.rit.edu/~rhrsbi/GalapagosPages/MarineIguana.html. Access: 8 March, 2007. Rubenstein, Dustin R. and Wikelksi, Martin. Seasonal changes in food quality: a proximate cue for reproductive timing in marine iguanas. Ecology 84.11 (Nov 2003): p3013.

Instability, Ambiguity and Errors in the Communication Process Essay

Subjectivity and duality are linked pitfalls of the communication process. Limitations in the power of expression, constraints imposed by circumstances, social conventions and the desire to keep intentions covert, all contribute to people saying, writing and signaling thoughts and ideas that may be at variance from the whole truth. The effects of such shortcomings are magnified by matching limitations on the part of the individual or the group which is the object of communication. Since context is fluid, communication may cease to be relevant, even when conveyed and received with great clarity and accuracy. Thus the communication process can be no more durable than inevitable changes in perceptions, situations and aims. Mayhew (2002, p 3) has emphasized the essential nature of communication as a means of maintaining dialogue in modern society, and in order to resolve various shades of opinion that evolve on all issues of common concern. The element of instability may not arise from the communication process alone, but may be integral to the environment in which communication takes place (Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992, p219). We cannot always blame communication for the instability in which it is forced to operate). An element of instability is almost inevitable in any communication that is not static. Communication instability can have roots in changing agenda of the encoder, media, noise and the through the intellectual evolution of the decoder as well. The term instability should be seen in communication terms without any necessarily negative connotation. The aspect of instability should also serve to warn encoders that their rivals as well ass noise may undermine their influence at any time. Communicators, for this reason, can never rest! High issue turnover sustain audience interest; excess stability can lead to boredom and even annoyed changes of perception. Errors may arise not just from encoding and decoding, but from noise. Noise may even add to the value and merits of information compared to the original transmission. Noise is an important source of errors in communication, whether perceived as beneficial or harmful (Shannon and Weaver, 1963, p19). Communication free of errors is utopian, and should be accepted in a positive spirit. Sensitivity to feedback and the ability to respond appropriately in terms of speed and modification are meaningful defenses against the inevitable and even at times useful errors that are part of the communication process. Windahl, Signitzer and Olson (1992, p205) also give the ambiguity of communication a utilitarian hue, by referring to the effect of political and other campaigns in the media, that spur people to search for additional information and even to action, based on the questions and curiosity that such ambiguity can arouse. Ambiguity can be used with good effect by skilled communicators. Many advertising campaigns, for example, may fail to meet set marketing objectives, if they present comprehensive and defined information in pedantic manner: intended targets may receive such communication and respond with inaction. Ambiguity can also help to attract attention in a situation full of noise. The onerous task of acquiring effective communication skills can be a thankless one, for its benefits and effects may be muddied by a lack of matching abilities on the part of the intended audience. A productive approach may be to study, mimic and adapt to the communication foibles of the other party, many disadvantages of language and customs as this may imply. Difficulties and obstacles to effective communication do nothing to undermine the importance and the value of related skills, difficult as they are to practice and to use. Communication ability, on the contrary, often becomes the deciding vote between success and failure, between victory and defeat, and between peaceful resolution and destructive violence, in all kind of transactions between individuals and groups. It is a means of intellectual distinction and of influence over the affairs of people at large. Signaling, Signification and the Code Model Signaling serves many important purposes in communication. A signal succinctly conveys a notion that may take many words and a long time to explain in normal language. A signal also bears the stamp of independent certification, thus endorsing a person or a view with the stamp of authentic authority. Finally, signals support obvious communication, supporting the overt message in subtle manner. An educational qualification, a professional or a social association and employment with an illustrious organization, are examples of signals and their benefits. We may presume to think that Mayhew is uncharitable in declaring that signaling is born in the assumption that others may not be honest during the communication process (2002, p 124). It would not be possible for any meaningful dialogue to take place within a reasonable period, if we had to communicate without signals. Signaling is also a valid response to the manner in which human minds function and form opinions. Signaling adds to the retention of communication, and thereby serves to fight competing communication and noise as well. Signification is a more basic aspect of communication than signaling, and one that is free of any implied criticism as we find with Mayhew. Signification relates to meaning. It has a valid base, since professional linguists can decide for us, the label value of each term. This does not mean that signification is elementary of free of controversy. Syntax and poor language ability can easily and commonly results in signification errors. The latter are especially common in verbal communication, especially in hasty situations when people cannot think as quickly and completely as they may be instigated to communicate. Signification capability improves with practice, and the most accomplished of people from all fields other than communication, may use spokespeople and writers to communicate better than their own powers of signification may allow. Artful changes of signification add to the elegance of communication (Silva Rhetoricae, 2002). Tropes and figures of speech are examples of some desirable changes in signification that may be used to enhance the value of communication. Signification is inseparable from the Code Model. Signification gives form and valid substance to the Code. However, all people may not be familiar with the formal dictionary meanings of words, which lead to communication errors in coding and decoding. Communication as a Means of Social Representation and Extension It is critical to the integrity of communication that practitioners distinguish between engaging others in dialogue, and the unethical tendency to exert overpowering influence on others. Differences in language abilities can become tools to impose on passive subjects in a manner that destroys individual freedom, and undermines development. Freire has recognized the power of literacy as a means of social development. Extension is not limited to mere transmission of messages, but maintenance of society over time; it has played key roles in impart and use of modern technologies and in achieving major changes in social behavior (Windahl, Signitzer and Olson 1992, pps 7 and 130). However, there are a number of casual settings in which extension objectives may degrade in to efforts to wield undue influence on the thought processes of others. It is therefore important to restrict extension efforts to facts that have strong foundations in evidence, though many communicators are not bound by such ethics. Mayhew has acknowledged the power of communication as used by people who seek to wield influence over others with whom they have affiliation and ties (2002, p 74). The communication process has the potential to induce desirable social change, but this should be through the path of developing strong conceptual abilities on an egalitarian basis. Social objectives can be undermined when education is either restricted or restrictive, thus giving some individuals superior signification abilities. This can prove to be especially manipulative when individuals with positional and resources strengths arm themselves with communication skills as well. The dangers of abuse of communication skills are as potentially deleterious in extension activities as they are in social representation within closely-knit groups of peers. However, the element of trust is likely to be much higher in an extension context, because of which the manipulation potential is also magnified. Widespread and uniform literacy with the ability for unrestrained critical thought is the only stable and durable way of preventing socially harmful and exploitative use of communication. This is the core value of Freire’s contribution to oppressed people everywhere. Pitfalls of Coding and Decoding The conversion of thoughts in to words and signs, and their translation by an audience, relate to the core and very delicate part of communication. The formation of words and signs to denote thoughts is the process of encoding, whereas the reverse by an audience is called decoding. Many of the processes of semiotics lie outside the conscious realm; they are also limited by the degree of literacy and facility with language. The processes of encoding and decoding are therefore fraught with dangers of errors and manipulation as well. The transport model of communication postulates the existence of a medium to convey thoughts from one individual to another, or between groups. Such a medium may vary in its degree of transparency, and can affect the veracity of decoding encoded messages. Distortion is also possible at the stage of encoding itself. The preferred meanings that we may wish to attach to words and signals are major instruments of errors in signal engineering. Such changes may also be intentional as in situations of propaganda. Judicious and deliberate encoding, as well as reflective and literate decoding, are some essential features for constructive dialogue, free of transport deficiencies. This is somewhat utopian in semiotic terms, and recognized as inevitable distortion, though it may vary widely in degree and differ by way of intent. A full understanding of the processes of encoding, decoding and use of media is crucial for the understanding of many contemporary phenomena in the worlds of social development, political evolution and industrial psychology. Mayhew has recognized its integral role in modern politics (2002, p 249). Accurate encoding and semantic decoding hold the keys to errors that even redundancy cannot substitute (Shannon and Weaver, 1963, pps 26, 71). They are therefore instrumental in effective communication, and in preventing both unintended misunderstandings and intentional noise that may be interjected in the system. Discourse and Miscommunication Sustained communication, as in a discourse, naturally multiplies encoding and decoding errors. Such a process lays the basis for basic and seemingly insurmountable misunderstandings. Edward Said has used the perception of the Orient (or the Middle East, which was his principal concern,) as an example of a misconception being perpetuated by a process of sustained discourse. Distortions that arise from discourse arise principally because individuals and groups have designated sources of information on which they depend, to decode information about entities and subjects of which they have no first-hand experience. Style is not an optional feature of discourse, because ideas cannot be communicated effectively without a degree of ornamentation (Silva Rhetoricae, 2002). Differences in styles used by encoders on the one hand, and styles to which decoders are accustomed on the other, may affect the integrity of the communications process. Mayhew has presented the same concepts as Said in the business light of Advertising, Market Research and Public Relations (2002, p206). Here, style variations may be used intentionally in discourse to affect perceptions and basic decoding processes. The manipulation of public opinion on a variety of matters through structured communication is a significant weapon of both politicians and business people. It is an important industrial application of communication skills. Commentators such as Edward Said have lamented the abuse of communication potential to create misrepresentations and distortions of public perception. Some parties may be excluded from parts of a discourse, which leads to misunderstandings, as they are not privy to the same facts, opinions and other inputs (Windahl, Signitzer and Olson1992, p 149). This is another insidious aspect of the potential for discourse to affect the realization of truth by large numbers of people with no direct access to undistorted facts. Literacy, common facility with language, equal access to transparent media and the ability for critical appraisal of issues, are certain safeguards against misrepresentation and unintentional errors in discourse and other forms of communication. Primary education and literacy for deprived adults are therefore essential tools for those who aim for egalitarianism and justice in the field of communication. Propaganda and more Ethical Forms of Influence Propaganda is marked by a unitary objective to encode and transmit, over-riding noise, feedback and any other form of influence on the transmission process (Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992, p 91). It is a feature of many attempts at the business function of public relations by large organizations. Propaganda sees the decoder as a virtually passive object, who seems to have no rights to their own opinions, much less the universal access to factual information! Propaganda is ineffective in literate circumstances, and can prove to be counter-productive, through loss of trust. Propaganda favors mass media such as television that can deliver quick results and which traditionally discourage or disable feedback mechanisms in the short-term (Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992, p 154). Exhibitions and exchanges are examples of relatively ‘slow’ media that do not lend themselves to propaganda aims. National aims are often touted as justification for propaganda. Though propaganda has some negative decoding in the public mind, it is in essence putting forward an idea with a certain agenda. Mayhew seems to acknowledge the authenticity of using eloquence to reinforce some ideas (2002, p 47). Professionally therefore, propaganda should not be seen as less or different than the related processes of propagation and diffusion, though the latter operates more at the informal and individual level. Much of Edward Said’s problems with the Occidental perception of Palestine could be seen in retrospect, as degrees of propaganda, propagation and diffusion. Rumors stand apart, for they lack the foundations in facts, and they often generate from sources that lack authority. Rumors always remain below the surface, and do not appear in official and open forms of communication. This does not mean that rumors lack potency; rather they can be even more damaging than propaganda in shaping public opinion. The insidious circulation of rumors is especially effective when overt communication transactions are lacking. Diffusion is one of the most professional means available for sanguine communicators ((Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992, p 57). Though it is a slow process, it has the benefit of durability and leads to long-term credibility of the best communicators. Diffusion uses a two-step process as a model and networking. Diffusion can produce revolutionary changes in opinions and habits, albeit in very phased and gradual manner. Diffusion suits those with long-term communication goals. It is a valid counterfoil to the bluster of propaganda. How Trust Fosters Successful Communication There can be no effective communication without degrees of faith and reliance. Decoding errors are more likely if the degree of trust in an encoder is low. Trust may be born in authority, but communication is more durable if the dependence is based on shared values and good experiences. Encoders have therefore to bear in mind that a single reason for loss of trust can very quickly result in a breakdown of communication that has been built over a long period. The most enduring communication campaigns, both in politics and commerce, are born in consistent support of espoused causes. Mayhew has said that even rhetoric is based on trust (2002, p 14). Mayhew is critical of some nuances of trust in communications, as it can be abused by encoders to prevent full discourse and to evade accountability. Social development depends in large measure on the trust that people have in communication from agents of change. This is a major challenge for state media and also for international agencies that wish to make impacts on communities in emerging nations, and in the aftermath of natural disasters and after times of distress. Support for new developments in technology may also be hampered by the lack of trust in the minds of lay public for sources of such information that are viewed as being biased. The aspect of trust presents special challenges in the new field of Internet communication, where the intended audience may have no direct experience with the sources of such information. We may conclude by stressing the invaluable role of trust in communication. As Mayhew has observed, solidarity depends on interdependence rather than uniformity; people will look for alternate encoders if they lose trust in established sources of information (2002, p 16). Windahl, Signitzer and Olson have repeatedly stressed the vital role of trust in various phases of the communication process (1992, pps 55, 62, 88, 103). The Motivating Force of Communication in Social Influence We learn from history that the force of communication is more sustained and influential than the use of force. The latter may produce some transient compliance, but only consistent advocacy can succeed in shaping and changing opinion. This concept applies in equal measures for both individual thought and for group action. The quality of signification in terms of its suitability for the intended audience, the peripheral support of signals and the consistent of transport across all available media, contribute to the motivating power of communication. People are known to undertake the most heroic and other forms of extreme action, under the influence of effective communication. Mayhew draws our attention to how governments use professionals from the world of advertising to try and wield influence over banks of voters (2002, p 7). Communication backed by appropriate media, can steer people towards forceful and aimed action. However, Mayhew warns that the persuasive power of communication can be misleading (2002, p 129). There is the important distinction at this stage, between factual statements, which are neutral, statements of identification that promote solidarity, and thereby appeal to irrational reaches of the decoding mind. Mayhew stresses the creative use of rhetoric to move people to action (2002, 129). The communication process may use inventive sentences with the intention to deceive. The influential power of communication may therefore be devoid of ethical merit. This cannot, unfortunately, detract from its efficacy! The power of communication campaigns to move large groups towards concerted action is a dangerous weapon amongst people who are unable to decode messages accurately, and who cannot reflect critically on the inputs to which they are subject. Such distortions are often more clear in retrospect than during the heat of a campaign. Motivation on issues beyond rational thought, such as related to religion, and on matters for which common people have no way of unbiased validation, as before war, are especially harmful in their immense powers. Contradictory Balances of Deception and Cooperation in Communication Models Communication models trace the flow of interaction between two entities. They serve both to understand the process and to determine strategies. All models must have the three universal components of sender, receiver and medium or channel. Early communication models depicted the process in linear manner from source and encoder to a receiver through a channel and a decoding procedure. Sources of noise were the only sides to this simplistic straight line. We know now that communication involves feedback, and is therefore a complex and non-linear process. The relative roles of deception and cooperation will not change depending upon the chosen model, for the latter is only a conceptual representation of a unitary reality. The game begins with the initiator of a communication. He or she has the discretion to use a valid source, or to pretend to have one. This person must be both skilled and committed to accurate encoding, and should know which channels and how many to use at each point in time. The initiator has also to be sensitive to feedback and to adapt subsequent transactions accordingly. Cooperation lies largely in the domain of the recipient, decoding as best as he or she can, and reflecting critically on inputs, with meaningful feedback and requests for supporting evidence. Mayhew has noted the role of deception in advertising campaigns as a 20th century phenomenon (2002, p 193). The endorsement of cigarettes by celebrities has been cited as the most powerful and terrifying of all deceptions used by the media. Interpersonal cooperation, on the other hand is a way of establishing relevance (2002, p 12). We may conclude that cooperation is a key factor in intimate communication between individuals, whereas deception works most effectively in campaigns conducted through the media. Brevity and Verbosity Feedback often instigates verbosity. Redundancy may be rooted in assumptions about the conceptual and decoding capabilities of an audience, or in excessive enthusiasm in a point of view. Propaganda aims may require repetition beyond the requirements of more neutral and virtuous communication. However, feedback may provide a justifiable reason for verbosity. They is a natural tendency to repeat oneself, as in a selling situation in which the customer appears unconvinced or even distracted. Verbosity also serves to allay anxieties of encoders and communicators. The imperative to succeed as when seeking financial succor or support, for example may bring forth a torrent of words far more voluminous than an audience may desire. Begging is an extreme form of communication in which brevity can be counter-productive! A more serious limitation of brevity is its ability to serve a multiplicity of communication objectives. Professional advertisers would love for their industrial clients to limit the number of points they want to convey; paying clients may be greedy and so involved with their brands, that they require a unitary buying benefit to be presented in as many ways as possible! We may conclude that verbosity is a failing of amateurs; it is shunned by the best communicators, who treasure the transport of concepts with as few signals as possible. However, amplification may be considered as a good reason for a degree of the stylistic vice that is verbosity (Silva Rhetoricae, 2002). Semiotics can reduce the tendency to be verbose, especially between homogenous groups which are accustomed to communicating with each other. The development of trust is also efficacious in keeping communication as brief as possible, without sacrificing completeness. Verbosity can therefore be an indicator of the lack of trust and of wide chasms between the cultural and linguistic preferences of people. This could be a reason for the long-windedness from which bodies such as the General Assembly of the United Nations seem to suffer! A Pragmatic Approach to Semiotics Communication Science, Semiotics and other Cognitive Processes cannot be seen in isolation of each others. Professional communicators and professional enthusiasts of the process have been accused by many commentators of exaggeration to the point of exclusion of necessary attendants (Windahl, Signitzer, Olson, 1992, p 18). Semiotics has always had a major role in communication theory, and modern users of mass media have heaped increasing loads of importance of this branch of insight in to human minds). Semiotics is an exact and an exacting field of endeavor, and its rigors can easily prove irrelevant to some sections of a heterogeneous audience. Focused targeting on sharply defined segments can make better sense of semiotics in communication, but real life often demands that a single transaction of a communications process necessarily reaches out to a diverse audience. The Chairman of a business Corporation has to bear in mind that the public use of semiotics may lead to varying degrees of decoding errors by categories of stakeholders with contradictory goals. Employees, vendors, regulators, investors and competitors will respond to a set of semiotics in different ways. The effect of semiotics on the enemy places an even greater burden on spokespeople of the warring sides and on political leaders of all shades of opinion. Pragmatism must often dominate semiotics in real life, especially when unitary signification is within the reach of diverse decoders, each with their own needs and objectives. Effective communication is rare if the social and cultural nuances of linguistics are discarded in the interests of semiotic perfection. The latter does not have many universal manifestations in any case. Pragmatic perlocution is often the result of a communicative action, though other forms of decoding could be considered as valid (Eco, 1978, p 65). Such pragmatism may be born out of the exigencies of a situation, apart from cultural distinctiveness of decoding. Communicative Action and Perlocution Locution refers to the uttered word, illocution to the intention behind the communication, and perlocution refers to the effect of locution in terms of producing action (Cutting, 2003, p 16). Speech Act theory refers to the relationships between and the sequences of illocution, locution and perlocution. Locution, illocution and perlocution are integral parts of communication. Illocution is the first step, as we cannot have any communicative action shorn of some intention. Locution can reflect illocution only to the extent that the encoder is literate and careful in signaling. Perlocution skills are similar to those of locution, except that they relate to the decoder, rather than to the originator of the communicative action. Communicative action and perlocution are therefore only the signification of the communicative process in codes that are not widely understood! Nevertheless, they serve to display the communication process in analytical light for the professional and for the enthusiast as well. Adianoeta are examples of signification in which signification can have authentic differences in perlocution (Silva Rhetoricae, 2002). Allegory and irony are related techniques of transmitting ideas and of attracting attention and exerting influence over perceptions. However stylistic vices are also inherent in many aspects of communicative action. Most communicative action will suffer from some bias or even error due to illocution on the part of encoders, their locative powers and the perlocution abilities of individual members of a diverse audience. Speech acts are limited by culture (Cutting, 2003, p 21). The use of words and their meanings have major differences across countries, and sometimes between ethnic groups in a single nation. A compliment within the confines of a community may be taken as insulting in another! This is a drawback of the Speech Act theory. Â  Colloquialisms and figures of speech that gradually creep in to everyday language as used by the laity can render the Speech Act irrelevant to some extent. The pedantic meanings of words can vary from common perceptions that evolve over time. Most communities prefer to accord precedence to such conventions over original root meanings. Therefore the use of the Speech Act to analyze real life communication processes may be prone to debilitating errors. Many expressions of feedback also fall outside the purview of the Speech Act, because decoding is at variance from the purist line. Finally, the Speech Act is deficient to analyze precisely communication that includes incomplete sentences. The latter are normal reactions to feedback that communicators receive during the course of discourse and dialogue. Incomplete sentences may also be used to create drama, humor, sarcasm and intimacy. Communicators have to be sensitive to the perlocution results of target audiences, and to adapt their locative techniques accordingly. Some errors may be due to the medium, and it takes long years of experience, with consummate instinct to distinguish between various possible sources of error that lead to unplanned communicative action. Similarly, perlocuters have to be wary of differences between expressed locution, distortions of media and noise and the true illocution of an encoder. Such potential errors are easier to manage over time and with repeated communicative transactions. Concluding Remarks Communication is a complex but universal and essential part of human life as a social species. It is shared by people with many earlier forms of life, but probably most evolved and certainly best understood within the context of our own cognitive abilities. Variations of signification lie at the deepest root of many communication errors. A universal lexicon, as used to some extent in the enunciation of law, serves to improve the accuracy of communication to an extent where independent and binding resolution of differences is possible. Opacity of media and environmental noise are common and highly significant sources of distortions and errors in the communication process. They are often clearer in review mode than during actual operation, whereas hidden aspects of illocution are more difficult to uncover without ambiguity. Linear models of communication are as ineffective as they are archaic. The roles of feedback and noise are essential elements of any template of productive and desirable communication. However the linear force of propaganda can be stunning when used with unbalanced force on groups of people with low literacy levels. Politics, relationships between nations and branding of industrial goods and professional services are the most powerful and remunerative applications of communication theories, though the process is relevant to all interaction between individuals. Communications have been used to subjugate people, imposing pervasive influence over perceptions and opinions of large groups of people with inferior literacy, comprehension and analytical skills. Equal access to quality primary education is therefore a primary weapon of mass empowerment. Communication skills, not just for encoders, but for decoders as well, are potent though non-violent shields against pernicious propaganda by vested interests of the elite. There is a need for more widespread appreciation of the role and nature of communication. The validity of some key theories and the efficacy of painstakingly developed techniques are adversely affected by imbalances between parties in a communication process. Pragmatism often wins the day against the elegance of semiotics and related disciplines. Diffusion based on valid and factual inputs, respectful of feedback, is a certain and virtuous, if slow means to eminent communication. Cultural and linguistic differences between people are the most important obstacles to utopian states of communication; the development, maintenance and reinforcement of mutual trust are amongst the most reliable facilitators of ideal communication between individuals and between groups as well. References Cutting, J 2003, Pragmatiics and Discourse, Routledge (UK) Eco, U 1978, A Theory of Semiotics, p 65, Indiana University Press Mayhew, LH 2002, The New Public: Professional Communication and the Means of Social Influence, Cambridge University Press Windahl, S, Signitzer, B, and Olson JT, 1992, Using Communication Theory, Sage Publications Incorporated Shannon, CE and Weaver, W, 1963, Mathematical Theory of Communication, pps 26, 71, University of Illinois Press Silva Rhetoricae, 2002, retrieved January 2006 from